Topics

Final reports

Red meat consumption patterns and contribution to healthy eating

Purpose: To determine red meat intake in Australia through secondary analysis of the 1995 Australian National Nutrition survey.
Outcome: Red meat intakes in Australia are within the Australian Guide to Healthy Eating recommendations. About 55% of red meat was consumed as cuts while the rest was consumed as part of mixed dishes or products. Red meat is the greatest contributor of iron and zinc in the Australian diet and a significant contributor of protein and Vitamin B12.

Purpose: 'Last Night's dinner' provides an in-depth understanding of Australians' main meal practices focusing on meals prepared in the home.
Outcomes: Meals were largely prepared in the home, made from scratch with fresh ingredients. Steak and three vegetables was Australia's most popular meal with chicken roast and spaghetti bolognaise in 2nd and 3rd. These were the most popular meals based on convenience, taste and health.

Red Meat and Healthy Eating Guidelines

Purpose: Assess the effects of different amounts and choices within the meats and alternatives food group of the Australian Guide to Healthy Eating (AGHE) on the content of iron, zinc, vitamin B-12 and long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids.
Outcome: Diets with a single serve of food of animal origin provided substantially more iron, zinc, vitamin B-12 and n-3 fats than diets with a single serve of plant origin.

Health Benefits of Structured Eating Patterns

Purpose: Identify evidence supporting the health benefits of structured eating patterns from nutritional, psychological and social perspectives.
Outcome: Family meals promote a number of health outcomes including improved nutrient intake by supporting the intake of nutritious foods. Food habits are taught to children early and become deeply entrenched for life. Food preparation and intake rituals are symbolic in nature and heavily influenced by the “mother” figure within a household.

Children’s Red Meat Intake

Purpose: A comprehensive analysis of the 2007 Children’s National Nutrition and Physical Activity Survey to determine the red meat consumption of Australian children, including details of cooking method, cut, portion size, frequency and eating occasion.
Outcome: Red meat is the most commonly consumed meat type by
this population. Children reported consuming more vegetables with red meat dishes than with other meat cuts and this was mainly eaten in the home at dinner time. Red meat is the premier source of iron and zinc for Australian children compared to the other meat types.

Children’s survey

Preparation of a peer reviewed journal article based on the report from the CSIRO on the 1997 children's nutrition and physical activity survey.

Food Patterns of Australian Children

Purpose: To determine if the patterns of food intake in Australian children differ according to the level of activity (including both sedentary and physical activity), weight status, sleep patterns and the family environment. Outcomes: Using both factor and cluster analysis a distinct 'meat and vegetable' pattern was identified in children. This pattern was associated with a lower BMI, and higher intakes of protein and a number of nutrients. 

Dietary patterns and diet quality in 18 month old children

Purpose: To document meat consumption among 18-month-old children, for use in refining population dietary assessment methods and dietary guidance for young children.
Outcomes: During the recording period 94% of the children ate meat. Chicken nuggets, beef mince, and beef sausages were the most frequently consumed meats. Median portion sizes ranged from 20–50 g, and were considerably smaller than ‘usual’ portions specified on food frequency questionnaires in common use.

Eating habits and healthy aging, using longitudinal population-based data from older Australians

Purpose: The project of older Australians investigated the diet and nutrient intake of a cohort of older people over ten years, and explored the relationship of diet at baseline to various health outcomes.
Outcome: The mean total meat intake did not significantly differ from baseline, though people tended to consume more meat dishes and fewer meat cuts. At the same time they were consuming higher amounts of fish and eggs, and similar amounts of total fruits and vegetables. People who had a higher HEI score had a lower risk for all cause mortality, after multivariate adjustments. Higher scores were more likely to have significant trends to higher consumption of fruits and vegetables, fish and lean red meat compared to those with lower scores. In addition, people with the highest intake of fruit and vegetables were more likely to be consuming higher amounts of lean red meat and fish.

Vegetarian vs. meat-eating dietary patterns: contribution to nutrient intake and health consequences

Purpose: Determine the amount, type and source of fatty acids, particularly long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids when comparing 4 different diet types consumed by men: high meat, moderate meat, ovolacto and vegan, and to compare each individual's intake with their plasma fatty acid levels.
Outcome: high and moderate meat diets had significantly higher intakes of long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids than ovolacto and vegan diets. Moderate intake of red meat did not result in higher intakes of saturated fats than ovolacto diets. Plasma fatty acid analysis suggested that regular moderate consumption of meat and fish maintains a plasma fatty acid profile conducive to good health.

Contribution of red meat to dietary intakes of polyunsaturated fatty acids

Purpose: Assess the contributions of red meats to the dietary intakes of individual polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), with particular reference to very long chain (VLC) omega-3 (ω3) PUFA.
Outcome: Meat is a major source of LCn3PUFA, particularly DPA, for most Australians. When DPA is included in the definition of LCn3PUFAs, almost half the average adult intake of LCn3PUFA appears to originate from meat sources.

Food industry and sustainability

An understanding of the context for the environmental sustainable production of food in Australia is required to help determine how best to define environmental sustainability for the purposes of public health. Understanding the range of activities being carried out in Australia as well as a brief overview of key concepts and issues is required to determine which initiatives best address public health requirements for environmental sustainability as well as availability and affordability of nutritious foods. This understanding will provide public health with guidance on how best to appropriately address the environmental sustainability of food production in Australia.
 

Red meat and health

Zinc Review

A review of the current knowledge of zinc nutrition, its application in practice and areas for further research.

Iron Review

A review of the current knowledge of iron nutrition, its application in practice and areas for further research.

Optimising micronutrient status in toddlers - meat products

Purpose: To determine the efficacy of an increased intake of red meat, or the consumption of iron-fortified milk, in improvement of iron status in toddlers at a population level.
Outcome: Consumption of iron-fortified milk can increase iron stores in healthy non-anaemic toddlers, whereas increased intakes of red meat can prevent their decline.

Dietary intake, dietary restraint and the nutritional status of young women

Purpose: To determine the relationship between eating behaviour, dietary intake and biomarkers of nutritional status and the effect that lifestyle characteristics have on that relationship in young women.
Outcome: Dieting practices are common in female students which affects food intake and compromises nutrient status. Restriction of animal products compromised dietary intake and nutrient status, e.g. iron and vitamin B12.

UNE Medical Centre Iron Project

Purpose: A pilot project was undertaken by the University of New England to assess the iron status of the female university student population.
Outcome: Although a large majority (91.6%, n=328) reported eating red meat, consumption (3 or more serves per week) was reported by only 51% (n=184). Nearly two-thirds of the sample lived in university accommodation, over half in whom lived in fully catered colleges. The prevalence of iron deficiency was 11.9%. Over a third (37.4%) of the study sample perceived themselves to be iron deficient.

Purpose: To determine the effect of a high protein (high red meat), low fat diet compared to a high carbohydrate (no red meat), low fat diet on weight loss, body composition, insulin sensitivity and cardio-vascular risk factors in Australian adult women.
Outcome: Similar weight loss, fat loss and retention of lean body mass resulted in both diets. Higher protein resulted in improved nutrient status (vitamin b12 and iron) and improved CVD risk factors. Subjects with hypertriglycaeridaemia lost more fat mass and also had a greater decrease in triglyceride concentrations with the high protein diet than with the high carbohydrate diet  .

Restoring a healthy weight with a higher protein high red meat diet in men

Purpose: To comprehensively assess the efficacy and safety of a high protein high red meat diet (HP) compared with a high carbohydrate diet (HC) on health markers in overweight/obese men.
Outcome: Weight loss on both HP and HC was associated with significant improvements in markers of health and wellbeing with no adverse effects on bowel health noted to be different by diet.

Purpose: Comparing a higher protein, low fat red meat diet vs a high carbohydrate, low fat diet on the effects on body weight, metabolic parameter such as glucose, insulin and iron, satiety and inflammatory markers.
Outcome: Results of this study suggest the higher protein, red meat based diet is a viable and effective alternative to a conventional higher carbohydrate weight loss diet. It has also been seen that study participants on the red meat based diet maintained iron levels throughout the trial whereas those on the higher carbohydrate white meat diet tended to decline.

The use of a high protein diet in achieving long-term weight maintenance and improved CVD risk factors in overweight and obese men and women

Purpose: The aim of this study was to achieve a large and rapid weight loss using a VLED, then investigate the effects of 12 months dietary treatment with a low-fat, high protein diet (HP) or a low-fat, high carbohydrate (HC) diet on cardiovascular risk factors and body weight in overweight and obese men and women. 
Outcome: Findings indicated that weight maintenance after a large and rapid weight loss is possible with both a diet high in protein or high in carbohydrate.  However, the diet high in protein conferred an additional advantage over the diet high in carbohydrate by maintaining the reduction in blood pressure achieved through weight loss.

Low-GI and high-protein diets for treatment of overweight

Purpose: Early studies have shown low glycaemic index (GI) diets may be useful in weight loss. The aim of this study was to evaluate the ability of diets with reduced glycaemic load to enhance weight loss effects of a reduced fat diet, to compare the two approaches of reducing glycaemic load on metabolic and anthropometric changes and to investigate any benefit of combining both dietary approaches to produce the lowest glycaemic load.
Outcomes: Reducing the glycaemic load through either substituting low GI foods or replacing some carbohydrate with protein, improved the effect of a reduced fat diet in women and those with high triglycerides. Combining both approaches to produce the lowest glycaemic load did not promote further weight or body fat loss. Weight loss was similar in all four diets for the group as a whole.

The effect of high protein (high red meat), low carbohydrate diets in the treatment of type 2 diabetes

Purpose: To determine if a predominantly meat-based high protein diet is superior to the standard, high carbohydrate, low fat diet in controlling diabetes and weight in a 12 month outpatient trial.
Outcome: An energy restricted, high protein diet was equally successful as an energy restricted high carbohydrate diet in reducing weight, improving blood glucose control and dyslipidemia. This study found that there were no significant adverse effects after 12 months on a high protein diet in a large sample of diabetic patients without compromised renal function.  Furthermore, the high protein diet also led to a reduction in systolic blood pressure and a decreased requirement for insulin and other hypoglycaemic agents.

The effect of a low carbohydrate, high protein red meat-based diet on incidence and severity of Acne Vulgaris

Purpose: To investigate the short term effects of altering the dietary glycaemic load on endocrine variables associated with acne and insulin resistance.
Outcomes: Results suggest that increases in dietary glycaemic load may augment the biological activity of sex hormones and IGF-1, suggesting that diets high in glycaemic load may aggravate potential factors involved in acne development.

Can a diet with increased lean red meat lower blood pressure and CVD risk factors in hypertensive individuals?

Purpose: To determine if partial substitution of carbohydrate intake with animal protein intake from lean red meat changes blood pressure and other markers of cardiovascular disease risk in hypertensive persons. Outcomes:  Results suggest that modest substitution of carbohydrate-rich foods with protein-rich foods may lower blood pressure in hypertensive persons and does not elevate oxidative stress or inflammation. 

Effect of a meat based DASH diet on blood pressure and bone turnover in postmenopausal women

Purpose: To assess the effectiveness of a modified DASH style diet containing at least 6 serves of red meat per week, with moderately low sodium content on blood pressure.
Outcome: A low sodium DASH style diet with the inclusion of lean red meat on most days of the week was effective in reducing blood pressure in post menopausal women compared to a low fat, high carbohydrate diet which contained a similar amount of dietary calcium.

Influence of dietary intake on blood pressure, bone density and bone composition in females

Purpose: To assess the relationship of dietary intake of nutrients and food groups (including meat) on bone density and bone mineral content, blood pressure and pulse rate, percent fat mass and percent abdominal fat. Outcome: A dietary pattern with a range of nutrients that are associated with higher protein intakes including higher intakes of dairy products was related to increased bone quality and blood pressure in older women. Protein was positively associated in older women with bone density. There was no evidence of an adverse effect of consumption of meat on bone density and blood pressure.

Postprandial clearance of chylomicrons

Purpose: Chylomicrons enter circulation following the ingestion of fat as triglyceride-enriched particles.
Raised chylomicron levels have been found to be associated with endothelial dysfunction an early indicator of atherogenesis. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate whether altering energy intake as red meat protein or carbohydrate modifies chylomicron homeostasis and postprandial lipidemia.
Outcome: The results of this study demonstrated that changing the protein/carbohydrate macronutrient composition of the habitual diets of moderately hypertriglyceridaemic subjects can significantly influence chylomicron metabolism. This study suggests that a modest shift in energy intake from carbohydrates to protein as lean red meat will not adversely affect coronary artery disease risk and in fact may improve it in hypertriglyceridaemic individuals.

Review of relationship between lean red meat and risk of CVD

Purpose: To review the literature in relation to red meat consumption and coronary heart disease risk factors. Outcome: Lean red meat, trimmed of visible fat, which is consumed in a diet low in saturated fat does not increase cardiovascular risk factors (plasma cholesterol levels or thrombotic risk factors).

Red meat and muscle hypertrophy in elderly women

Purpose: The effect of a high lean red meat diet, in conjunction with 12 weeks resistance training, on strength, body composition and skeletal muscle inflammation in 60-75 yr old women.
Outcome: The consumption of lean red meat in post-menopausal women had no marked impact on muscular mass, however we did see minor differences between groups in terms of consistent strength improvement over the 12 week intervention.  There was a tendency for greater gains in strength in the later half of the intervention. These alterations in strength, although modest, warrant further analysis in a larger population.

Red meat and muscle fatigue in the aged

Purpose: To examine the role of red meat in maintaining muscle mass and positively influencing muscle fatigue in the aged, with a view to improving the ability to undertake daily living activities through a program of diet and exercise.
Outcome: Higher red meat consumption was associated with greater leg strength and changes in leg muscle mass. The study demonstrated that these improvements in muscle strength and morphology could only be obtained in association with exercise since handgrip strength was not increased with higher meat consumption. Importantly, the weekly provision of meat was well tolerated in the high meat group and there were no negative indicators associated with high meat intake.

Colon cancer risk reduction - resistant starch

Purpose: to determine if a diet combining wheat bran with resistant starch would produce more favourable changes in faecal variables than would wheat bran alone.
Outcomes: Combining WB with RS was effective at producing beneficial changes in faecal bulking, transit time, and fermentation-dependent indexes that persisted to the distal regions of the human colon. The WBRS combination clearly produced more benefits than did the WB diet alone or the RS diet alone

IGF TWD Men’s project analysis

Purpose: To analyse the IGF (Insulin Growth Factor) levels in blood in men from the TWD (Total Wellbeing Diet) Men’s study and provide greater understanding about the insulin-cancer hypothesis.
Outcome: The effect of the energy restriction, independent of the type of diet, had the largest influence on IGF concentration. Overall it was not possible to conclude which form(s) of IGF have the greatest impact on cancer risk.

Systematic review of CRC and red meat

Purpose: To conduct a systematic review of the evidence of the relationship between colorectal cancer and consumption of red meat.
Outcomes: The evidence that eating fresh red meat increases the risk of colorectal cancer remains weak and inconsistent.

Diet, lifestyle and colorectal cancer

Purpose: The aim of the study was to quantify the risk of colorectal cancer associated with major modifiable lifestyle and dietary risk factors.
Outcome: Cigarette smoking, alcohol consumption, red meat intake and obesity were associated with increased risk while exercise reduced the risk of colon and rectal cancers.

Effectiveness of DPA in comparison to DHA in lowering plasma triglyceride levels and other cardiovascular risk factors

Purpose: The Long chain omega-3 fatty acid, DPA is found in red meat and the potential health effects of this omega 3 have not been explored. The aims of this project were therefore, to compare the effects of DPA rich seal oil supplementation with DHA rich fish oil on, 1. measures of plasma lipids and lipoprotein particle size in subjects with high triglycerides and 2. platelet activation and other CVD risk markers in normal healthy subjects.
Outcomes: Significant plasma triglyceride reduction was seen in the seal oil supplement group and platelet activation was decreased after consumption of seal oil only. These studies further supports the suggestion that DPA may be more beneficial than EPA or DHA in lowering CVD risk factors related to platelet activation and blood lipids however more research is needed to confirm these effects.

DPA is a functional long-chain omega-3 PUFA

Purpose: To determine if DPA, a major long chain ω3 PUFA found in meat, is a bioactive ω3 PUFA and a precursor of DHA in human cells.  By showing this, it is hoped that DPA will be recognised as a functional long chain ω3 fatty acid.
Outcomes: DPA was shown to be bioactive in reducing fat synthesis in liver cells similar to that of EPA and DHA. DPA accumulated as DPA in the laboratory rat tissues and it was also metabolised to DHA and EPA. In females subjects DHA, DPA and EPA were all equally effective in reducing platelet aggregation, in vitro. A reduction in platelet aggregation is regarded as beneficial in preventing the formation of excessive blood clotting. There were significant gender differences to reduce platelet aggregation, in vivo, in response to EPA or DHA. Males benefit more from EPA supplementation while in females, the platelets are more responsive to DHA. More research is required to confirm these results. 
 

Nutritional value of red meat

Retail survey of beef and lamb

Purpose: To conduct a survey of the beef and lamb cuts available in the Australian retail supply to determine the possibility of developing descriptors based on external fat width to help in nutrient composition assessment.
Outcome: External fat width predicted the amount of total fat separable fat for most beef and lamb cuts. Based on the variation observed in the retail beef and lamb samples, external fat width was categorized into 0, <2, 5, and <8 mm.

Nutrient composition of red meat

Purpose: To determine the gross composition (proportion of lean, fat and waste), nutrient composition and fatty acid composition of beef and lambs samples available in Australian retail.
Outcomes: Lean red meat is an excellent source of protein, vitamin B12 and bioavailable iron and zinc. It is also a source of long chain omega-3 fatty acids and contains less than 4% saturated fat. There seems to be considerable variation in the fat content of the red meat retail samples over different cuts, however overall red meat is leaner (less external fat) than 20 years ago.

Red Meat supply chain

Purpose: To review trends over the past 20 years that have influenced the red meat supply in response to consumer and health professional demands for lean meat, drawing on published survey data, marketing information, analyses of meat content and qualitative research.
Outcome: Over the past 20 years increasing consumer awareness of the importance of health and the role of saturated fat, driven through the media by public health organisations such as the Heart Foundation, has influenced consumer practices and the food supply.

Nutrient Density

Purpose: To develop a science based framework for defining and ranking nutrient dense foods

Omega 3 content of lean red meat

Purpose: To determine the omega 3 content of of red meat and the effect of cattle feed regime (grass feeding versus grain feeding) on omega 3 fatty acid content.
Outcome: Feeding regime can have an effect in red meat fatty acid content however this effect is not significant and many other factors such as breed, location etc need to be taken into account. 

Vitamin D in Australian lean red meat

Publications

Findings from research projects are also accessible via the following articles in peer-reviewed journals, conference presentations and consumer publications. 

1. Baghurst, K., Record, S., and Leppard, P. 2000, 'Red meat consumption in Australia: intakes, nutrient composition and changes over time', Nutrition & Dietetics, (57 (4) Supplement).

2. Shrapnel, B.S. and Baghurst, K. 2007 'Lack of nutritional equivalence in the 'meats and alternatives' group of the Australian guide to healthy eating', Nutrition & Dietetics,(64 (2): 254-260)

3. Webb K, Rutihauser I, Knezevic N. 2008 ‘Foods, nutrients and portions consumed by a sample of Australian children aged 16-24 months’, Nutrition & Dietetics, 65:56-65.

4. Webb K, Rutishauser I, Katz T, Knezevic N, Lahti-Koski M, Peat J and Mihrshahi S, 2005, Meat consumption among 18-month-old children participating in Childhood Asthma Prevention Study. Nutrition and Dietetics (62 (1); 12-20)

5. Flood, V.M. et al, 2007, 'Fatty acid intakes and food sources in a population of older Australians', Asia Pacific Journal of Clinical Nutrition, (16 (2):322-330)

6. Tan J, Wang JJ, Flood V, Rochtchina E, Smith W, Mitchell P. Dietary antioxidants and the long-term incidence of age-related macular degeneration: Blue Mountains Eye Study. Ophthalmology 2007, Jul 28;

7. Mann et al. 2006, 'Food group categories used in dietary analysis can misrepresent the amount and type of fat present in foods', Nutrition & Dietetics, (63: 63-78)

8. Mann et al. 2006, 'Fatty acid composition of habitual omnivore and vegetarian diets', Lipids, (41, 7: 637-646)

9. Howe P. et al. 2006, 'Dietary intake of long-chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids: contribution of meat sources', Nutrition, (22:47-53)

10. Szymlek-Gay, EA et al, 2009, ' Food-based strategies improve iron status in toddlers: a randomised controlled trial. AJCN, 90:1-11.

11. Clifton, P.M., Keogh, J.B. and Noakes, M. 2008, 'Long-term effects of a high-protein weight-loss diet', American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, (87:23-9)

12. Noakes et al, 2005, 'Effect of an energy-restricted, high-protein, low-fat diet relative to a conventional high-carbohydrate, low-fat diet on weight loss, body composition, nutritional status, and markers of cardiovascular health in obese women', American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, (81:1298-306).

13. O'Callaghan N, Clifton P, Noakes M, and Fenech M. “Weight loss in obese men is associated with increased telomere length and decreased abasic sites in rectal mucosa.” Rejuvenation Research. 12. 3 (2009): 169-76
 
14. Benassi-Evans B, Clifton P, Noakes M, Keogh J, and Fenech M. “High protein-high red meat versus high carbohydrate weight loss diets do not differ in effect on genome stability and cell death in lymphocytes of overweight men.” Mutagenesis. 24. 3 (2009): 271-7

15. Delbridge EA, Prendergast LA, Pritchard JE and Proietto J. 2009, ‘One-year weight maintenance after significant weight loss in healthy overweight and obese subjects: does diet composition matter? Am J Clin Nutr. 90: 1203-1214

16. McMillan-Price et al, 2006, 'Comparison of 4 Diets of Varying Glycaemic Load on Weight Loss and Cardiovascular Risk Reduction in Overweight and Obese Young Adults', Archives of Internal Medicine, (166:1466-1475

17. Smith RN, Mann NJ, Braue A, Mäkeläinen H, Varigos GA. A low glycemic load diet improves symptoms in acne vulgaris patients. A randomized controlled trial. Am J Clin Nutr. 2007 Jul; 86(1):107-15

18. Smith RN, Mann NJ, Braue A, Mäkeläinen H, Varigos GA.2007, 'The effect of a high-protein, low glycemic-load diet versus a conventional, high glycemic-load diet on biochemical parameters associated with acne vulgaris: A randomized, investigator-masked, controlled tria'l. Journal of the American Acadamy of Dermatology, (57 (2): 247-256)

19. Smith RN, Mann NJ, Braue A, Varigos GA 2008, 'The effect of a low glycemic load diet on acne vulgaris and the fatty acid composition of skin surface triglycerides'. Journal of dermatological Science, (50(1):41-52)

20. Smith, R., Mann, N., Makelainen, H., Roper. J., Braue, A. and Varigos. G. 2008, ‘A pilot study to determine the short-term effects of a low glycemic load diet on hormonal markers of acne: A non randomised, parallel, controlled feeding trial’ Mol Nutr Food Sci, 52, pp 718-726

21. Hodgson et al, 2007, 'Increased lean red meat intake does not elevate markers of oxidative stress and inflammation in humans', Journal of Nutrition, (137:363-367)

22. Hodgson, J.M. et al. 2006, 'Partial substitution of carbohydrate intake with protein intake from lean red meat lowers blood pressure in hypertensive persons', American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, (83:780-787)

23. Nowson CA, Wattanapenpaiboon N and Pachett A. “Low sodium Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension- type diet including lean red meat lowers blood pressure in postmenopausal women.” Nutrition Research. 29 (2009): 8-18.

24. Mamo, JCL, et al., 2005, 'A low-protein diet exacerbated postprandial chylomicron concentration in moderately dyslipidaemic subjects in comparison to a lean red meat protein-enriched diet', European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, (59:1142-1148)

25. Li et al 2005, 'Lean meat and heart health', Asia Pacific Journal of Clinical Nutrition,
(14(2):113-119)

26. Muir et al, 2004, 'Combining wheat bran with resistant starch has more beneficial effects on faecal indexes than does wheat bran alone', American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, (79 pp1020-8)

27. Belobrajdic D, Frystyk J, Jeyaratnaganthan N, Espelund U, Flyvbjerg A, Clifton P, and Noakes M. “Moderate energy restriction induced weight loss affects circulating IGF levels independent of dietary composition.” European Journal of Endocrinology. (2010).

28. Baghurst, P.A. 2007, 'Colorectal cancer', Nutrition & Dietetics, (64 (Suppl4-Red Meat):S99)

29. Huxley RR, Ansary-Moghaddam A, Clifton P, Czernichow S, Parr CL and Woodward M, 2009, ‘The impact of dietary and lifestyle risk factors on risk of colorectal cancer: A quantitative overview of the epidemiological evidence. Int J Cancer. 125 (1):171-180

30. Meyer B, Lane AE and Mann NJ, 2009, 'Comparison of seal oil to tuna oil on plasma lipid levels and blood pressure in hypertriglyceridaemic subjects. Lipids. 44(9):827-835

31. Phang M, Garg ML, Sinclair AJ. 2009 ‘Inhibition of platelet aggregation by omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids is gender specific-Redefining platelet response to fish oils’, Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 81(1):35-40

32. Kaur G, Begg DP, Barr D, Garg M, Cameron- Smith D and Sinclair AJ. 2010, ‘Short term DPA (22:5n-3) supplementation increases tissue DPA, DHA and EPA concentration in rats’ Brit Journal of Nutrition, 103: 32-37

33. Kaur G, Begg DP, Barr D, Garg M, Cameron- Smith D and Sinclair AJ. 2010, ‘Docosapentaenoic acid (22:5n-3): A review of its biological effects’ Progress in lipid research. (In press)

34. Cobiac, L. et al. 2003, 'Use of external fat width to describe beef and lamb cuts in food composition tables', Journal of Food composition and Analysis, (16 (2) 133-145)

35. Williams, P.G., Droulez, V., Levy, G and Stobaus, T. 2006, 'Composition of Australian red meat 2002. 1. Gross composition', Food Australia, (58(4), 173-181)

36. Williams, PG, Droulez, V, Levy, G & Stobaus, T, Composition of Australian red meat 2002. 3. Nutrient profile, Food Australia, 2007, 59(7), 331-341.

37. Droulez, V, William, PG, Levy, G, Stobaus, T and Sinclair, A, Composition of Australian red meat 2002. 2. Fatty acid profile, Food Australia, 58(7), 2006, 335-341.

38. Williams P and Droulez V 2010, 'Australian red meat consumption – implications of changes over 20 years on nutrient composition. Food Australia. 62 (30): 87-94

39. Ponnampalam, E.N., Mann, N. J. and Sinclair, A.J. 2006 ‘Effect of feeding systems on omega-3 fatty acids, conjugated linoleic acid and trans fatty acids in Australian beef cuts: potential impact on human health’, Asia Pacific Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 15 (1) pp.21-29

40. Mann NJ . 2006, 'Omega 3 fatty acids from red meat in the Australian diet. Lipid Technology. 17 (4):79-82 .